Essay on The Negative Effects of Violent Video Games

Video games have been a rapidly expanding industry since their inception in the 1970s. Along with their growth have come concerns about violent video games and their effects on aggression and violence in young people. The many school shootings have pushed this issue to the forefront, since the two shooters were avid players of video games. These events brought about the question: do violent video games induce aggression in youth? That’s the question I set out to answer by looking at research. The research shows that there is a link between playing video games and increases in aggression in adolescents. What implications does this fact have ethically? It means that video game producers and distributors need to be held responsible†¦show more content†¦Moreover, 68% of the most popular video games contain violence (Tamborini 336). So it is clear that many children have access to violent video games and they have a big impact on their lives simply because of the a mount of time spent playing them. The shooters at Columbine high school, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold frequently played violent video games such as Doom, and Harris even created a modification for the game. The modification allowed two shooters to use a large arsenal weapons to shoot unarmed civilians (Anderson 353). Is seems eerily close to the actual events that took place. But just because individuals who were involved in school shootings frequently played violent video games, it does not mean that video games increase aggression in people. We have to look to research to see if a link between the two exists. Unlike television and motion pictures, violent video games are a relatively new invention and studies on their impact are not as numerous. There has been a lot of such research on the effects of movies and television. Over five decades, research has shown that â€Å"even brief exposure to violent TV or movie scenes causes significant increases in aggression, that repeated exposure of children to media violence increases their aggressiveness as young adults, and that media violence is a significant risk factor in youth violence† (Anderson 354). These types of media do increase aggression and violence, but how do violentShow MoreRelatedNegative Effects Of Violent Video Games1895 Words   |  8 PagesHow can violence within a video game benefit the player and what differences within other types of video games demonstrated to have beneficial factors? Introduction Today, entertainment surrounds people through their televisions, computers, phones and video games. Essentially, video games developed into several various genres causing today’s entertainment to crave an unique experience. But, violent video games, regarded as a controversial genre, causes more negative controversy within modernRead MoreNegative Effects Of Violent Video Games1869 Words   |  8 Pagesphones and video games. Essentially, video games developed into several various genres causing today’s entertainment to crave a unique experience. But, violent video games, regarded as a controversial genre, causes more negative controversy within modern society due to its glorified scenes of blood, killing, sexual context, and language than its counterparts. Not only does this minimize their favorable factors, but additionally, it generates a believable correlation between violent video games and aggressiveRead MoreNegative Effects Of Violent Video Games796 Words    |  4 Pagesparticular, playing video games has become an increasingly popular pastime for adolescents. According to the American Psychological Association, 97% of American adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 play video games (Scutti). However, there are many controversies surrounding the idea of playing video games. In today’s market, video games often contain violent themes, such as killing or stealing. This would include many shooting games, strategic games, and role-playing games. It is a popular beliefRead MoreNegative Effects Of Violent Video Games1045 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Violent video games in particular are extremely popular in the United States. Many of these games are designed for adults but wind up in the hands of children. We have to ask ourselves what impact violent video games have on the adolescent brain. Two lawyers debate in the Case of Brown vs. Entertainment Merchants Association, US Supreme Court (2010). Prosecutor Steven F. Gruel argues that there is a substantial amount of evidence to make the conclusion that violent video games cause adolescentsRead MoreViolent Video Games Have Negative Effects904 Words   |  4 PagesViolent Video Games Have Negative Effects For years gaming industries have been aiming towards entertaining people of all ages, especially children and adolescents. However, the definition of entertainment has changed drastically, from playing dodge ball outside to watching and playing video games in which people pretend to annihilate each other. Video game violence attracts and addicts young players, by affecting their behavior, and their development of social skills, to even affect their abilityRead MoreNegative Effects Of Violent Video Games712 Words   |  3 PagesHave you heard? Many people are debating whether or not Violent Video Games cause kids to be aggressive and violent. While others, like myself agree violent video games aren’t the problem of violence, real-life violence is. And therefore, you should to why, because Violent Video games allow kids especially boys to let out anger and relax themselves from emotions. It also helps entertain kids. And creates less real-world aggression. Kids already know the difference between virtual and reality byRead MoreThe Negative Effects of Violent Video Games Essays1274 Words   |  6 Pagessociety, and technology. All of these improvements have brought with them positive effects. Warfare has allowed oppressed people to rule themselves; medicine has saved countless lives with vaccines and treatment programs; education of societies has allowed people to make their dreams come true; and, advancements in technology have made the previous three possible. With these positive effects also come negative effects, which are seen on a grand scale. Advancement in warfare has caused numerous deathsRead MoreEssay on The Negative Effects of Violent Video Games on Children1990 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"Life is a video game. No matter how good you get, you are always zapped in the end† (â€Å"Video Game Quotes† 1). Over time researchers, psychiatrists, and parents have often wondered how damaging violent video games can be to the yout h in society. This is an important matter to people with children in their personal lives or work environment. These games have become a large risk factor for aggressive behavior in children. Researchers have been saying that video games do affect adults as well; howeverRead MoreEssay on The Negative Effects of Violent Video Games1529 Words   |  7 Pagesor what inspired these attacks on these innocent victims? This question has become an epidemic in our country. We live in a violent world and young people have easy access to it whether its on television, in music or on the Internet. But with the explosion of media entertainment in recent years, video games have come under scrutiny as to whether or not violence in video games numbs children and teens to the consequences of real-life violence. The answer to this question is yes. Young children andRead MoreViolent Video Games : Positive And Negative Effects On Children And Adolescents774 Words   |  4 Pagesgaming systems, viol ent video games have become well-liked by children and adolescents. The playing of violent video games has always been a controversial topic, but in recent years it has become a heated debate. Whether the playing of these games desensitize the player or not. Video games have been around since the late 1970s, however violent video games were introduced in the 1990s. In recent years the violence in games have increased along with the enhanced graphics making the games more realistic

Western Society During The Late Nineteenth And Early...

Introduction Topic Statement: Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was filled with male supremacy. Through the works that Darwin (Descent of Man) and Gamble (The Evolution of Woman: An Inquiry Into the Dogma of Her Inferiority to Man) wrote it is clear between the clash the different genders are in. While women were struggling to get a footstep in to the system, men were trying to maintain their status as the dominate sex. Thesis Statement: Darwin’s ideas on male supremacy were very influential to western society, he brought about many changes, but most important of all, he gave men a reason to be superior to women. Influential as it is, Eliza B. Gamble stood up to him critiquing his argument and labeling it fallacious in many ways. In Charles Darwin’s Descent of Man (1871) he frequently looks down upon the female sex and could be even called, in modern terminology, a sexist. Although he provides seemingly reasonable logic, he gives women an impossible task and if the female sex cannot achieve the goal he set for them, they are labeled as stupid and inferior. Darwin portrays In order that woman should reach the same standard as man, she ought, when nearly adult, to be trained to energy and perseverance, and to have her reason and imagination exercised to the highest point; and then she would probably transmit these qualities chiefly to her adult daughters. All women, however, could not be thus raised, unless during many generations thoseShow MoreRelatedUnequal Rights For Women And Gender Inequality1732 Words   |  7 Pagesinequality have been a plague across European society since the dawn of time. It was not until the late eighteenth century that women’s rights activists, such as Mary Wollstonecraft, began to take action against this inequality. Through the perseverance of these activists, major reforms for equality began to arise during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, both being time periods that marked a profound era for women and the progression of women’s rights. During this time women’s rights expanded greatlyRead Mor eWorld History Final Exam 20131485 Words   |  6 Pagesillustrates the laws of Babylonian society were influenced by lex talionis and what? Social Class structure – social inequalities 4. What of the following contributed to the fall of both the western Roman and the Han? Invasion by barbarian borderland tribes (Huns, Visigoths, Vandals) 5. Graph 6. Describe the major effects of the Bantu migrations? Diffusion of iron metallurgy across Sub Africa, Bantus language slash burn agriculture 7. Inca and Aztec societies were similar politically how Read MoreThe History of Islamic Fundamentalism684 Words   |  3 PagesExplain the history of Islamic fundamentalism. Is it similar in nature to the fundamentalist movements of the early twentieth century? The term fundamentalism today is used as a descriptive term, referring to any reactionary religious group (Ethridge Feagin, 1979). But at its core, fundamentalism means attempting to return to fundamentalist roots, by embracing dualistic views of the world and carrying out a series of radical reforms to return to the imaginary past. Islamic fundamentalismRead MoreEssay on Imperialism771 Words   |  4 Pages Imperialism DBQ nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Throughout American History the U.S. has sought to expand its boundaries. This need increased greatly during the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century with the start of the industrial revolution. This Expansion was a big departure from earlier attempts to expand the boundaries of the U.S. The needed for Natural resources forced the U.S to look for places that could supply them with the natural resources they needed and markets where theyRead MoreNew Era Of The United States1571 Words   |  7 Pagesmetaphor first arose in the eighteenth century, but was used in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to describe the growing number of immigrants in the United States. From 1900 to 1915, â€Å"more than 15 million people† immigrated to the United States, ushering in a new era of Americans (Library of Congress). Furthermore, there was a shift in the countries from which immigrants were arriving. These changes characterized the firs t half of the twentieth century, as immigrants struggled to assimilateRead MoreAge of Enlightenment and Century5169 Words   |  21 PagesRenaissance be regarded as a turning point in the Western intellectual and cultural tradition? 2. 81: Compare the ways in which two works of art reproduced below express the artistic, philosophical and cultural values of their times. (Pictures of Michelangelo s David and Giacometti s Man Pointing 1947). 3. 82: Compare and contrast the cultural values of the Enlightenment with those of the sixteenth century Northern Renaissance. 4. 84: CompareRead MoreCCOT And CC Essay1549 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿UNIT 1 /2 – 8000 bce – 600 bce, 600 bce – 600 ce Africa Compare and contrast life in foraging societies with life in agricultural societies after the Agricultural Revolution Identify two key changes in early African history that resulted in a new period in the history of the region The Middle East Analyze the political changes in the Middle East from the Agricultural Revolution to 600 c.e. Compare and contrast the basic features of TWO of the following religious systems prior to 600 c.e. PolytheismRead MoreThe Influx of Changes in Chicago During the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century844 Words   |  3 PagesIn the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth Century, America was dominated by change. Expansion, urbanization, immigration, and capitalism swept the nation from coast to coast affecting every class, race and religion. The United States economy changed dramatically, as the country transformed from a rural agricultural nation to an urban industrial giant, the leading manufacturing country in the world. As this economic growth proliferated, Chicago was the epicenter in America. Travelers from EuropeRead MoreThe Alien Land Law ( 1913 )893 Words   |  4 Pagesin most western American states. While ultimately Japanese-American persons utilized a range of legal means to circumvent the land lease and ownership stipulations in the Alien Land Law of 1913, subsequent state legislation was eventually enacted to further restrict the rights of Asian immigrants. Ref lective of anti-immigrant and anti-Asian public sentiment expressed in discriminatory state laws of the period and indicative of the general treatment of Japanese-Americans throughout the late nineteenthRead MoreRealism and the Humanities 1718 Words   |  7 Pagesareas in literature and the arts, and spanned many countries and centuries, affecting and changing how these things were, and are still, viewed by the people. Realism was first established in France during the late eighteenth/ early nineteenth century to describe literary and visual works where the aim was to create something that accurately showed the world as it was. Nineteenth century Realism was a response to nineteenth century Romanticism, which caused many novelists to focus on the lives and

Municpal solid waste Free Essays

An open dump is defined as abandoned piles of household garbage, bags of yard waste, appliances, old barrels, used tires, and demolition debris such as lumber, shingles, pipes and asbestos can threaten the health of humans, wildlife, and the environment. (Epa. State. We will write a custom essay sample on Municpal solid waste or any similar topic only for you Order Now IL. Us, 2014) Open dumps pose the following health, safety, and environmental threats: Fire and explosion Inhalation of toxic gases Injury to children playing on or around the dump site Disease carried by mosquitoes, flies, and rodents Contamination of streams, rivers and lakes Contamination of soil and groundwater Contamination of drinking water Damage to plant and wildlife habitats Decrease In the quality of elite to nearby residents and the local community Open dumps create a public nuisance, divert land from more productive uses, and depress the value of surrounding land. (Epa. State. IL. Us, 2014) Early landfills were made in were made in wetlands, which were thought to be wasteland back then. Early landfills leaked into rivers and lakes and built up gases, like methane. Garbage dumps used to catch fire and even explode, because as garbage rots, it gives off methane, a flammable gas. Experimentation. Rag, 2014) Early landfills have significant problems with the Lactate organization because it was an unconstrained contaminant release, the methane organization did not exist, and incomplete decomposition as well as settle was so high because 8% of waste was secondhand. Modern landfills are carefully designed to contain waste and protect the environmental integrity of the surrounding area â₠¬â€œ including the air, water and soil. Our landfill incorporates advanced design features, including multi-layer liner construction, gas extraction and lactate removal systems. Multidimensional. M. Com, 2014) This is completely different from early landfill because there was no way to contain the waste. Modern landfills include engineered protective liners, lactate group systems, groundwater nursing and much more. Alton Landfill and Resource Recovery Facility in Livermore, CA has implemented a special program to protect the endangered San Joaquin Kit Fox. The protection program Includes many projects to protect the San Joaquin Kit Fox. Exclusion zones are placed around dens. Limited disturbance of areas adjacent to construction and storage areas must be maintained. How to cite Municpal solid waste, Papers

The Taming Of The Shrew Persuasive Essay Example For Students

The Taming Of The Shrew Persuasive Essay How does Katherina in The Taming Of The Shrew change and develop as the play progresses?  In this essay I am going to be studying the character of Katherina from William Shakespeares play The Taming Of The Shrew.  Katherina is a fiery, bad-tempered, violent shrew that nobody likes. Men are petrified of her! Her sister Bianca has a great number of suitors and all the male attention. This includes her father who clearly favours Bianca. We first meet Kate in Act one, Scene one, L.50-54. Her father states that no one shall marry his youngest daughter (Bianca) until he finds a husband for Kate.  To cart her rather! Shes too rough for me. Says Gremio, L.55, in response to Baptistas suggestion about finding a suitor for Kate, L.48-54. This obviously shows he doesnt like her much if he feels she should be treated like a prostitute,  Hortensio then says, L.59-60, No mates for you unless you were of a gentler milder mould. Obviously Gremio isnt the only one who believes she is too rough. Katherina then speaks and we begin to understand why these men arent too fond of her temper.  to comb your noddle with a three-leggd stool and paint your face and use you like a fool. (L.64-65) She says she is going to hit him on the head with a stool and paint his face with blood. She is living up to her reputation!  It seems first impressions arent in Kates favour as Tranio, who has only known Kate a few minutes, comments, That wrench is stark mad, or wonderful forward. (L.69) He is saying she is bad-tempered. Maybe another reason for Kates bad temper is because of her jealousy over her sister? She has all the suitors, she is beautiful and it would appear that Baptista favours her.  and let it not displease thee, good Bianca, for I will love thee neer the less, my girl. Says Baptista, L.76-77.  Kate is quite aware of his favouritism and refers to her sister as A pretty peat!, L.78.  Baptista then says, L.91-101, Go in, Bianca, for I know she taketh most delight in music, instruments, and poetry Katherina, you may stay, for I have more to commune with Bianca. Once again his favouritism is evident. He doesnt invite Kate to go inside, just Bianca. Why, and I trust I may go too, may I not? Asks Kate, L.102. Kate is obviously envious of her sister and would have liked to be invited inside too.  Its no wonder she is so bad tempered! She has nobody on her side, her father favours her sister and everyone appears to dislike her.  Act two, scene one begins with Bianca and Kate arguing. Kate has tied her sisters hands together and they are discussing Biancas suitors.  Of all thy suitors here I charge thee tell whom thou lovst best. Demands Kate in Lines 8-9 showing her authority over her sister. Bianca responds by telling her sister she is still looking for someone she likes. Kate obviously doesnt believe her sister as she replies, L.13, Minion, thou liest! She refers to her sister as a minion, which is a term of abuse for the spoilt favourite child. This proves she does feel Bianca is favoured!  Baptista then enters and shows his partiality for his youngest daughter yet again.  Why, how now, dame! Whence grows this insolence? Bianca, stand aside. Poor girl, she weeps. (L.23-24) Baptista calls Katherina a dame (madam) which is a term of rebuke. He then unties her hands and says, L.25-28, Go ply thy needle; meddle not with her. For shame, thou hilding of a devilish spirit! Why dost thou wrong her that did neer wrong thee? It is starting to seem Baptista doesnt care about Kate at all; hes always too busy defending Bianca to even have time for her. .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .postImageUrl , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:hover , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:visited , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:active { border:0!important; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:active , .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790 .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uffe76b898f6bdb24da283017f9d32790:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A review of the production of Blood Brothers EssayKate then speaks what she is feeling, L.31-34, What, will you not suffer me? Nay, now I see she is your treasure, she must have a husband, I must dance barefoot on her wedding day and, for your love to her, lead apes in hell. Kates jealousy is shown here, and it seems she is also jealous of all the suitors Bianca has as well as their fathers attention. When she talks about dancing alone on her sisters wedding day she is talking about the behaviour traditionally expected of an older, unmarried sister. The mention of leading apes in hell is referring to the lot of women who die old unmarried maids. Katherina then exits the sc ene. This is when Petruchio enters. He introduces himself to Baptista firstly and then checks what he will get for marrying Katherina. if I get your daughters love, what dowry shall I have with her to wife? (L.118-199) Hes making sure marrying this bad-tempered shrew he has heard about is worth his while.  Hortensio, disguised as Litio, then enters the scene with his head bleeding. He explains Kate hit him with his instrument! I love her ten times more than eer I did. Says Petruchio, L.160. O how I long to have some chat with her. Kates fiery temper has made him more fired up!  Baptista then exits and goes to fetch Kate. When she enters, the two argue and exchange witty insults. Petruchio flirts with Kate but all it does is make her more annoyed and fiery. He twists everything she says and is full of quick-witted, sexual and sarcastic replies. Kate probably feels quite intimidated which may be another reason why she dislikes him. She is also, most likely, quite shocked to have some male attention for once, despite the fact she is being her usual self and insulting him, which usually the men are frightened of and end up disliking her.

Special Occasion Speech Essay Example

Special Occasion Speech Essay Ladies and gentlemen: I’m sorry to drag you from your tasty wine and delicious dessert. There just a few things I need to say as a bridesmaid. This is the second time I ever be a bridesmaid, I hope I did the job alright last time and wish I could do better this time, although I know the former couple were still talking about me when they get divorced, but I’m pretty sure that got nothing to do with me or my speech. 8 years ago, there is a girl wearing a dirty white dress sitting in the corner of my kindergarten, that’s how I met her, and today, there is a girl wearing a fabulous wedding dress in front us, that’s the reason why I am here, speaking. We got along with each other pretty easy since we are extremely nice people, or maybe I’m just a little bit nicer than her. We were firmly believed that two of us gonna be the happiest couple in this world since the day we learned the word† couple† until both of us were told same gender marriage may not be accepted by everyone, no like today’s wedding which is not only blessed by God but also all the people here. 5 years ago, a guy who pretending really friendly â€Å"kidnaped† her and never let her go, even worse, I’m forced to be in this occasion and give everyone a speech about how â€Å"sad† I am after my best friend left me, then run into another person’s arms or bed, whatever. We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer That was my fault because I couldn’t find any cause why they may not be lawfully joined together, so I have to hold my peace forever. I think I know what is going to be happen next, the pretty girl in the wedding dress, and the handsome guy in the decent suit will just like the fairytale, live together happily ever after. So, everyone, raise your glasses, to this adorable couple.

Lincoln Could He Have Preserved the Union essays

Lincoln Could He Have Preserved the Union essays From the time the South demanded the return of Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens, tension had been building in expectation of Lincolns reply. The options available to Lincoln were limited, and those that were available were further limited by constraints of time and man-power. Lincolns options were also limited by his goals. Lincoln had a set agenda, with preserving the Union at the head of the list. Lincoln also aimed to preserve Fort Sumter and Fort Pickens. Lincolns most pressing goal was to instigate the war without seeming to be the aggressor. This proved to be the most difficult goal, because to achieve this, he had to know how far to push without seeming to push at all. An additional goal was to perhaps lure the border states onto the northern side. This was an important goal because it fell in line with Lincolns un-hostile attitude. By being attacked first, he could say he was responding to an act of war on the United States. One of Lincolns options was to sit by and do nothing. This was not really an option, however, because abandoning his soldiers at this fort would not only lower the morale of his entire army, but could also turn many of his supporters against him. So, needless to say, Lincoln could not really consider this as an option. Lincoln, for a time, also entertained the idea of compromise. The southern resolve was so concrete that this idea was abandoned rather quickly. Another idea, proposed by Secretary of State Seward, was to abandon Fort Sumter and concentrate on Fort Pickens. Lincoln did not accept this idea either, mainly because abandoning a fort anywhere in the South would recognize the South as an independent nation. Even so, Seward managed to get a force together, and taking one of the strongest ships in the United States Navy, went to Pickens anyway. One idea with similar traits was the idea to abandon both forts, leaving the South. Though open to consider...

Walt Dysney Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Walt Dysney - Case Study Example The three key elements of such a technology project plan are described below; a. Databases: Detailed information about the existing customers, prospective customers, types of services available, customer orders, other inventory items etc. forms a crucial component of the database. The information, thus generated, can be used to track the periodicity of the customer/s in using the services of the company, tracking of orders, customer preferences etc. Such information can subsequently be used to improve the services of the company. b. Programming: After the company has set up the requisite databases, there's a need to integrate the different database items into one common entity to make the online experience a wholesome e-commerce activity. This can be achieved when there is built-in programming and software coding to assist the database integration and providing a useful user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI can be of different types for different segment of customers. The programming also facilitates creation of the order/s, invoice generation, accepting the payment and communicating the shipping details. The programming must make the e-commerce website easy to handle even for a non-technical user. Programming tools like visual basic, java, html, C++ etc. are the most popular one's for creating a user friendly interface. c. Networks: For providing a reliable communication networks function as the backbone. In today's era of Information Technology the world is increasingly becoming networked, technical, and closer to each other. Communication networks are generally defined based on their size and complexity. In general the three main types of networks are Local Area Networks (LAN), Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN). Networks not only help the company in information/ data sharing, but it also helps in improving efficiency and reducing costs. When the databases are interconnected though internet or any other type of networking, it also helps in reducing data redundancy and simplification of error handling mechanism. The company can opt for an appropriate network depending upon the type of requirements. Intranets will be used by the company people to update the information for the general user. For example to connection all adjoining database centres within premises the compan y can set up a LAN; to connect two or more company offices within the city the company can set up a MAN while for connecting such data centres located across the countries or regions, it can set up a WAN. Internet will of course be the interface for the user and company officials on the move. Networks will therefore be extremely useful to manage customer orders and inventory. In addition to the above mentioned elements the technology implementation plan requires use of some more assisting technologies so that the new technological solution does not adversely affect any individual/ party concerned with the company. i. Use Cases in System Analysis and Design: Henney (2007) states that, "A 'use case' represents a case of use of a system, ideally one that captures a functional requirement in terms of an identifiable and testable goal." Therefore Disney

Child abuse and the catholic curch Research Paper

Child abuse and the catholic curch - Research Paper Example question in most people’s minds is how such inexplicable and copious numbers of abuse could go unnoticed, unreported, unacknowledged and with no accountability for so long. The question posed within this essay however, is why? Why has there been such wide spread and proliferate sexual abuse of children within the Roman Catholic Church. Gauthe, who was a priest based in Louisiana was shifted from parish to parish by church elders and authorities once they became aware of his abusive activities. In an attempt to maintain equilibrium within the Church and keep control of the situation themselves the Church gave Gauthe opportunity to continue his sexual abuse against minors. Due to the media and public outcry however, he was brought to trial and removed from his position in 1983; in 1985 he was sentenced to jail for twenty years but was released after ten; whereupon he was later arrested again for further accounts of molesting young boys (Gavrielides & Coker, 2005; Werth, 2003; Dale & Alpert, 2007). The Gauthe case however proved to be the first wave in a tumultuous ocean of abuse, molestation and cover-up in the Catholic Church. In 2002 the Boston Globe (January 6) declared that the â€Å"Church Allowed Abuse by Priests for Years† (Carroll, 2002; Isely, Isely, Freiburger & McMackin, 2008). The story revealed how Law, the archbishop of Boston and his forerunners had turned a blind eye to sexual abuse and had permitted their priests to abuse children without retribution (Carroll, 2002), and that priests like Father Geoghan, who had purportedly raped or molested 130 children had been protected by the Church (Carroll, 2002). Such revelations instigated a plethora of victims coming forward to report abuse, and the media using words such as ‘crisis’ and ‘scandal’ in relation to the Church (Plante, 2004), incited public outcry and demand for answers and retribution. The outcome was the realization that nobody was in reality, aware of the enormity of the crisis,

Literary analysis focusing one analysis discussed in class in relation Essay

Literary analysis focusing one analysis discussed in class in relation to a selected short story - Essay Example Because of his dashed dreams of chivalry, he realizes what reality mean everyday for working-class and poor families. â€Å"Araby† depicts that the innocence of childhood is a short-lived illusion because adults know that reality is full of falsehood and broken dreams. The images and irony in the story convey the difference between reality and delusions that children eventually learn to differentiate as they mature. The boy conjures images and feelings to exhibit his love for Mangan’s sister, but these emotive representations expose his inexperience with love: â€Å"†¦her name was like a summons to all my foolish blood† (Joyce). Summons pertains to a call made by the authority. The boy thinks that his beloved has become the authority of his being, when he knows that this love is an unrequited one, thereby most likely resulting to a disaster. As a child, however, he does not think of these consequences. Nevertheless, dramatic irony occurs when the boy feels t hat he has matured because of this love, when in reality, the effects of his love prove his immaturity: â€Å"I had hardly any patience with the serious work of life which, now that it stood between me and my desire, seemed to me child's play, ugly monotonous child's play† (Joyce). ... y†: James Joyce and Irish Orientalism,† Bongiovanni argues that the fascination for the Orient in the story signifies the need of the Irish to be distracted from â€Å"oppression by the English, but also from the rigid control of the Catholic Church† (26). The boy and his family are Irish but they are interested in Oriental literature. For instance, his uncle knows The Arab's Farewell to his Steed. This is an example of the need of the Irish to escape the social and religious controls of their lives. While boys are dealing with puppy love, adults struggle with something more deeply immobilizing- their loss of freedoms and autonomy. Aside from these images and irony, the unoccupied house stands for the seer, the moral code of Christianity that looks over and judges its believers. Snart, in â€Å"Detached and Empty: Subtexts of the Unoccupied House in James Joyce's â€Å"Araby,†Ã¢â‚¬  asserts that the detached house is not the boy and his emptiness. Instead, the house represents the â€Å"self-scrutinizing gaze of his Catholic surroundings† (91). The boy feels the same gaze, but not in the adult sense. As a child, he looks inward in a different way, where he internalizes his admiration for an older girl. But as soon as reality hits him, he discovers a painful truth about life: it is not always what people would want it to be, and most of the time, it turns out for the worst. When the salesgirl talks about a â€Å"fib† and looks at the boy, Papi underlines that the child’s fantasy does not conform to the truth (4). In other words, the boy’s chivalrous feeling of bringing something nice for his love foreshadows a mournful disappointment. He sets his expectations too high, and in the end, he fails not only his crush, but most of all, himself: â€Å"I saw myself as a creature

The Renaissance And The Reformation

The Renaissance And The Reformation Upon initial inspection, the Renaissance and the Reformation appear to be two entirely separate periods of change that occurred in Western Europe with equally dissimilar causes and purposes. The Renaissance, literally a time of rebirth, marked the decisive break from the Middle Ages and the rediscovery for the appreciation of the arts, literature, and the further development of politics and economy. On the other hand, the Reformation focused mainly on the split of ideals dealing with the church and the methods with which reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others who preached against simony, the selling of indulgences, and essentially dealing with the corrupt ways of the Church. While the two may not bear many outwardly apparent similarities, the Reformation, in fact, depended heavily upon the human developments during the Renaissance. The single most important document linking the Renaissance and the Reformation is the 95 Theses, written by Martin Luther who posted it on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany. This piece of writing which mostly addresses the improper abuse of clerical powers and the immoral conduct of selling indulgences, which was initially triggered by mercantilism and the rising importance of money in a growing economical society, was only able to be circulated throughout Germany with the help of the printing press. Although the printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, was not a direct product of the Renaissance, it was the revolutionizing piece of technology which allowed the circulation of numerous printed copies of the Bible throughout Western Europe, served as a crucial tool in developing a well-informed, literate population during the Renaissance in Europe, and, of course, printed over 300,000 copies of Luthers 95 Theses, the catalyst of the Protestant Reformation. With the aid of the printing press, the people of Western Europe became further educated by having a greater opportunity to come into contact with a Bible. Prior to reading the Bible for themselves, people were only able rely on the words of the papacy, the clergy, and other members of the church, who were, unbeknownst to the common man, in fact corrupt. Through obtaining personal knowledge from reading the Bible (even those who could not read Latin now have access to the Bible translated into vernacular, English, or German), people now felt they had the control to formulate their own decisions and grasped the idea that they will not be controlled by a corrupt church. With this state of mind, secularization, the separation from religious influences, and individualism, the recognition of the self as having moral value, flourished throughout the Renaissance in Europe. While reading the Bible significantly guided the people of Western Europe in Luthers general direction of thought even prior to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, another group of people known as the Humanists, who provided their time to truly understand the Classics the works of Socrates, Plato, and other ancient Greek philosophers began eradicating the idea of scholasticism, which was, in essence, believing everything as they are told. People began to read, comprehend, and make decisions for themselves without relying strictly on the church. Books such as Castigliones The Book of the Courtier, which taught men to be the perfect gentlemen, and women to be the perfect gentlewomen, and Erasmus In Praise of Folly, which satirizes and mocks the Church of its erroneous ways (Palmer, 72), were published and read. The final result was a greater movement of secularization and individualism which led to a continual separation of the people from the church. In addition to an increasingly self-determining population, one event which becomes the catalyst to ignite a sense of distrust amongst the common people of Europe towards the church was The Great Schism. The crisis of assigning multiple papacies was not only an indication of the manipulating of the power given to the popes in order to satisfy the Churches self-indulgence, but also caused the devout to question which of the papacies truly holds the keys of Peter, or simply if any church at all would lead them to salvation (Palmer, 53). This dissatisfaction with the church spread through all ranks of society, from the kings to the common people. From these uncertainty sprouted the teachings of John Wyclif and John Huss, who both supported the ideology of salvation by reading the Bible, and not from the teachings of an organized church (Palmer, 54). This led to the eventual denunciation of the Pope, or in this case, Popes, as a religious leader. With scholars and people in general granted the ability to finally read and scrutinize the Bible for themselves, important theologians such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, only to name a few, emerged, attempting to correct the erroneous ways of the corrupt church. Luther, who preached not for the sake of creating a new religion but to simply correct the misdoings of the church, translated the Bible into many accessible languages and gathered many followers who agreed wholeheartedly with his ultimate principle of salvation by faith alone, and that only the Bible contains the true words of God. One final aspect of the Renaissance that affected the course of action of people throughout the Reformation was the development and enforcement of politics. While the ideas of Luther, Calvin, and other theologians caused new churches to rise in towns, they were not able to replace the previously existing church prior to some government intervention. The new church did not have immediate power to dissolve the old church and was obligated to wait on governments decision before implementing and taking action. Although inconvenient for those eagerly awaiting the further spread of the Protestant Church, the higher power given to the government and the advance of politics developed through the Renaissance provided a greater source of order for the people during the Reformation. The Renaissance and the Reformation, although largely unlike, greatly complemented each other in various aspects. From the most important advancement of educating the populace in order to instill in them the understanding of individualism and separation from scholasticism, to the initial dissatisfaction towards the church caused by confusions of The Great Schism, to the works of Castiglione and Erasmus, the Renaissance shaped the minds of those previously unaware of the immorality of the Church into the minds of those prepared for a change through the Reformation.

Media Chronicle: The Academy Awards Essay example -- Media

Ever since I was a little girl, my mom used to have me watch movies in English so I would get better at the language. That activity soon developed into a longtime love for watching movies of all kinds. From comedies to dramas, I found that movies gave me a certain space for myself and showed me new places and worlds to explore. That love of movies led me to discovering one of the biggest influences in my life: The Academy Awards. I was ten years old when I first watched the ceremony and being so young at the time, all I knew was that a group of celebrities gathered to celebrate movies. Yet, as time went by and as I kept getting older and more knowledgeable about the awards, they became something more to me. The show not only changed my perspective about movies, but it also gave me a new insight into what I want to do with my life, and about the power of dreams and choices. Historically, the Academy Awards were created in the late 1920s by The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) which was founded in May 1927 by Louis B. Mayer, an executive of MGM studios and thirty six other members. These awards were created as a way to help the film industry advance and develop in different and important aspects and to also recognize achievement. Most commonly known as the Oscars, the first ceremony took place on May 16, 1929 at the Blossom Room of the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel and it was a modest affair with the winners having been announced three months earlier and the presentation lasting roughly five minutes. The following year a Los Angeles radio station covered the ceremony and as time went by, the development of new technologies brought the rise of television during the 1950s. It was the year 1953 when the first TV broa... ...ds not only represent the greatest achievements in filmmaking, but to me they represent the love of movies, of dreams coming true, of opportunities being given and of lives being changed. They have changed my life and I am sure they will continue to do so. Just as movies will always be present in my life, so will this piece of media; reminding me to be better, to take risks and to make bold and wise choices that can take me far. Works Cited - "History of the Academy Awards | Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences." Oscars.org | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Web. 01 Feb. 2012. . - "Academy Awards, the Most Famous Awards Ever." Fun Film Talk, a Great Place to Chat about Movies and Filmmaking. Web. 01 Feb. 2012. .

Twelfth Night, 3.1.1-26

Michael Nodurft English 208 Mrs. Walter Twelfth Night, 3. 1. 1-26 Jan. 30 2007 True Lies Reading this conversation between Viola and Feste the clown there is definite multiple meanings to each of the words that they both say. You can tell that Viola’s wit is matched to Feste’s which makes this conversation so cleverly written. This passage offers pun’s to the audience who understand that Cesario is truly Viola. And have Feste hinting that he knows Viola’s hidden identity. This passage offers hints to the truth of the Viola and the fact that Feste is truly not the fool that everyone believes he is. In this passage I will prove that this conversation is crucial to the plot, and defines beoth of these characters roles. When Feste enters the room he is playing his pipe and tabor, and is being his normal fool self. The first couple lines are normal speech when Viola asks, â€Å"Dost thou live by thy tabor? †3. 1. 1-2 I like how Viola used the word tabor because it is the perfect description of Feste personality, the way he is always playing games with people for money. When Feste’s witty remarks are matched by Viola, Feste begins his more intellectual wittiness. â€Å"A sentence is but a cheverel glove to a good wit,†3. . 10-11 In this sentence you tell that there is a deeper meaning when Feste is talking about a glove. The way that Feste describes the glove to Viola is interesting because when a person uses a glove it is normally hiding the hand. Feste has stumble onto a crucial part of the play making the plot much sweeter for the audience because they know t he truth about Viola and he doesn’t; Cesario is the glove to Viola. This is perfect not only is the fool being a mocked in the play; his fooling is now involving the audience making subtle hints of something he does not know. The next line Feste says is â€Å"How quickly the wrong side may be turned outward. †3. 1. 11-12 I like this comparison between the glove turning outward and Viola trying to keep her cover, because Viola doesn’t know what Feste knows. Another note that I stumbled on when reading this scene was the fact that Feste repeated the word â€Å",Sir,† when he was addressing Viola. When you look into Feste’s lines it is almost like he is mocking the word sir by putting a coma before and after. I can see the imagery of Feste’s face when he pauses and announces â€Å",sir,† I can see his eyes looking into Viola’s almost jesting that he knows that she is not truly a sir but a woman. It seems like Feste knows a lot but I don’t really think he entire understand it yet. So for the audience who knows Cesario is a woman, it is quite enjoyable seeing Feste sort of stuck in the dark and not truly understanding everything. This is how Feste obtains both the fool in the play and to the audience. Another idea that I have thought about was what is Feste hiding? Feste is the loveable fool that plays tricks for money, but is that his true nature? I believe that the â€Å"glove† sentence applies to both characters Viola and Feste. Viola is trying to keep her cover, but one slip up and she could be uncovered causing terrible trouble. On the other hand Feste, if his cover of being a fool is blown then he has no way of living. If one was thinking hard about this speech Feste is talking about himself. Being witty and fun, but at the same time scared to let his more intelligent side out. He has to purposely put himself outside of the box so that no one can understand his true meaning of life. The way that this passage is put together it is not rhythmic at all. The lines don’t flow together like other parts of the play. There is no iambic pentameter is these sentences they are either too long, or too short. I think that Shakespeare purposely made these lines uncut and off rhythm for a reason. This reason is that Feste is a fool and is always being witty never making a direct point. Viola is fooling right back and not being entirely serious as well. From a literary stand point having the fool talk in such a manner makes them both out of the box or â€Å"party†. It makes sense that Feste talks in such a manner in the play, but I like how Viola’s lines are almost the reiterating the argument that Feste and Viola are very similar characters with their wit. I have showed the evidence threw out my paper proving the idea that Feste and Viola are very much alike. I have shown you the style on how they talk to each other using the wit to the best of their abilities. I have proved the non rhythmic lines that complement the fact that both characters are intelligent fools that think they know what they are talking about but are still in the dark. The fact that Feste is messing with Viola the way he does, shows that he has some knowledge on her true identity. The way that Feste mocks Viola makes this passage so important to the plot of the play because of the funny pun’s it gives the audience; hinting at the fact that Cesario is the glove to Viola. All of this evidence digs deeper into this passage and pulls out the hidden pun’s and messages that you couldn’t see with one glance, and enriches the story with hidden thoughts. Shakespeare, William. â€Å"Twelfth Night. â€Å"The Norton Shakespeare based on the oxford edition. 1997.

Colorado Elections essays

Colorado Elections essays Colorados Presidential Elections I was assigned to research the 2000 presidential elections in Colorado. Colorado is a state where Republicans outnumber Democrats. Colorado has 2.8 million voters, have that approximately one million are Republicans; 967,500 are unaffiliated; 842,000 are Democrats; and the rest belong to minor parties. According to many surveys done in the past five weeks in this state, Texas Gov. George Bush is ahead of Vice President Al Gore by approximately nine percent. After George Bushs 24-year-old drunken-driving arrest the polls showed a brief tightening in the gap between George Bush and Al Gore in Colorado. Despite this George Bush continues to have the lead. Colorado ballot proposals have Coloradoans talking about guns and growth, pot and power ball, abortion, school funding and taxes cuts for everyone. Amendment 22 would require background checks on all gun show costumers, this grew out of the columbine high school massacre. This amendment has the support of Republican Gov. Bill Owens and more than half-million dollars in donation. Amendment 21 will cut taxes, amendment 23 would provide extra school funding, and amendment 24 is a growth control measure. In Colorados interests George Bush and Al Gore stand on opposite sides. Abortion is one of the issues in where they differ. Gore supports abortion rights while Bush opposes abortion except in cases of rape, incest or to safe a womans life. Education is one of the primary concerns of many states. In Colorado there are expectations for student achievements. Democrats feel Colorados schools are among the least adequately funded in the nation. They believe they need to reduce class sizing and the teacher will have to provide more individual attention to the students. Republicans believe that Democrats are concentrating too much on the environmental aspect of education while Bush wants to spend money to train tea...

The Suffix -strophe

The Suffix -strophe The Suffix -strophe The Suffix -strophe By Mark Nichol Do the words apostrophe and catastrophe have anything in common besides a couple of syllables? What, if anything, does a punctuation mark have to do with a disaster? The words, taken from Greek, share an element derived from the Greek verb strephein, which means â€Å"turn.† Apostrophe, meaning â€Å"turn from,† alludes to the fact that an apostrophe signals that one or more letters in a word have been omitted, or â€Å"turned away.† (The symbol later came to be used to identify possessives- and, erroneously, plurals, though some publications persist in the otherwise obsolete style of apostrophizing plural numerals, as in â€Å"That style went out in the 1950’s,† or abbreviations, as in â€Å"This rule applies to most M.D.’s.† The former style is unnecessary, and the latter approach is rendered unnecessary by simply eliminating periods from capitalized abbreviations.) Catastrophe, meanwhile, means â€Å"overturning,† and refers to a devastating reversal in fortune. (In Greek tragedy, the term applied to the turning point in a play.) Scholar and novelist J. R. R. Tolkien coined an antonym, eucatastrophe, to denote a â€Å"good turn,† or the point at which an unexpectedly favorable outcome occurs, though his coinage is obscure. The term peripeteia, meaning â€Å"turning point† (in English also referred to as peripety), already exists, but it can refer to either a positive or a negative event. (Although a deus ex machina- the term literally means â€Å"god from the machine† and refers to a plot point representing sudden intervention that produces a happy ending- is a form of eucatastrophe, the terms are not exact synonyms.) Several other words contain the element -strophe, which stems from strephein, or elements derived from it. The word strophe itself, and its antonym antistrophe, pertain to elements of Greek tragedy, referring to the part of an ode sung by a chorus while it is turning to face another direction (east to west and west to east, respectively); the concluding movement is called the epode (â€Å"sung after†). Strophe has also come to refer to a part of a poem with stanzas of various lengths, and in the classic Greek era an antistrophe was also a dance. The term boustrophedon, which literally means â€Å"turning an ox while plowing† (the first syllable is related to that of bovine), refers to ancient writing forms in which lines are alternately written left to right and right to left, as opposed to always from the same direction. Anastrophe, meanwhile, is an inversion of normal word order for literary effect, as in the phrase â€Å"forest primeval.† The prefix strepto- is seen in the New Latin term streptococcus, which refers to a type of bacteria with a twisted shape. (The name for the medical condition caused by this bacteria, strep throat, uses an abbreviated form of the term.) The words strap and strop, both referring to a band of leather or other material (and also used as verbs), are also derived from strephein. Check out our latest YouTube video, Prepositions: In vs. On Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:15 Terms for Those Who Tell the FutureIs There a Reason â€Å"the Reason Why† Is Considered Wrong?Captain vs. Master

The Choice by Russell Roberts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Choice by Russell Roberts - Assignment Example He claims that as a nation, America can specialize in producing televisions but it is much better for them to concentrate their resources on producing goods or services which they are really good at and leave the production of goods, like television, to other countries (Japan). This way they (Americans) better utilize their time and resources for making more money than as compared to Japan (Roberts 10). The reverse is also true for Japan, which may or may not be good at making drugs, which Americans are good at. Roberts provides a convincing argument on the theory of comparative advantage. I agree with Roberts that instead of protecting one's own industries and businesses, the trade should be shared to even the weaknesses and strengths of the world's economies. If America is good at making drugs and can fetch a higher price for them then it would be better to concentrate resources to market drugs to other countries. It should create a niche by developing drugs, (or any other products) to maximize its resources. Since time and labor are scarce resources in economic terms, it is logical that a country's authority makes the right choice to free trade regulations to help its industries to "swap" products. The real deal is the ability of the country to find the products that should be sold to other countries and chooses products which are cheaper in comparison. This is necessary for the theory of comparative advantage to work for an economy to earn profit from the "swap". Roberts makes this claim based on Ricardo's theory, assuming that other countries of the world are willing to trade as well and that all economies of the world are stable in their production and resources. However, what happens when an economy, A, is not stable? What will happen if the other country, B, is not willing to trade due to lack of "money" or lack of product to sell to A? In such a scenario, I believe the theory of comparative advantage will not wor of well.  

The Contribution of Geriatric Health Services Research to Successful Essay

The Contribution of Geriatric Health Services Research to Successful Aging - Essay Example The variables for the contributions of Geriatric Health Services Research include : changing care patterns to increase chances of successful; eliminating the iatrogenic consequences of medical care preservation of quality of their aging. Added to these, Owe and Kahn pointed out three components of health services and these are: the changing care patterns to gain chances of successful aging; and elimination of the iatrogenic consequences. On the other hand, measures of frailty, life satisfaction or quality of life, and Physical health are few of the successful aging variables. Several other factors may also be included, like substantial roles, physical and social-psychological environment. Moderator variables may also be added in the study, like evaluation of objective physical disability, subjective physical and mental health. Experimental designs by way of randomized trial and the quasi-experimental methods were needed. This step basically required closely examination of the participants as well as the personnel. Randomized trial and the quasi-experimental methods according to Gay (1999) are two of the strongest designs in providing empirical evidence. It is substantial in establishing the effects of the treatments used. ... 1. Chronic Illness Care 2. Use of Clinical Measures3 Evaluating the effects of this conjoint program; and The Contribution 2 4. Strengthen Geriatric Health Services Policies. Ho3: Geriatric Health Services Department has not attained the high level of "Successful Aging". Types of VariablesThe variables for the contributions of Geriatric Health Services Research include : changing care patterns to increase chances of successful; eliminating the iatrogenic consequences of medical care preservation of quality of their aging. Added to these, Owe and Kahn pointed out three components of health services and these are: the changing care patterns to gain chances of successful aging; and elimination of the iatrogenic consequences. On the other hand, measures of frailty, life satisfaction or quality of life, and Physical health are few of the successful aging variables. Several other factors may also be included, like substantial roles, physical and social-psychological environment. Moderator variables may also be added in the study, like evaluation of objective physical disability, subjective physical and mental health. Methods Used in the Study.Experimental designs by way of randomized trial and the quasi-experimental methods were needed. This step basically required closely examination of the participants as well as the personnel. Randomized trial and the quasi-experimental methods according to Gay (1999) are two of the strongest designs in providing empirical evidence. It is substantial in establishing the effects of the treatments used. It can control certain degree of biases brought about by differential failure or loss to follow-up, the inadequate of control over risk

The Lacey Township Power Plant Problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Lacey Township Power Plant Problem - Essay Example As the paper discusses the Radiation and Public Health Project highlighted this in 2001 when it found substantial increases in radioactive contamination of the local area. Further study indicated a marked increase in a wide variety of cancers especially in children and elderly people. This compares to a decrease in like cancers in the vicinity of eight similar reactors which have been closed since 1987. This essay declares that along with an immediate threat to public health are the problems associated with the disposal of the spent nuclear material. Currently the four nuclear power sites in New Jersey are storing over 1600 tons of radioactive waste. With aging facilities, dwindling financial resources, and diverted political priorities there is no clear plan that the public will be adequately safeguarded from future disaster. This material is a constant threat to the area from accidental leakage, mismanagement, or even a terrorist act. The jeopardy that the reactor poses is not just limited to the local area. Neighboring residents are also at risk. The mayor of Brick Township, New Jersey, has filed a petition with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission requesting the Oyster Creek site be allowed to remain open only if it met the current standards of a new reactor. The mayor's concerns are brought about by the dramatic increase in population since the reactor's inception. Evacuation plan s with the existing infrastructure would be unrealistic and would likely create mass chaos.

In time of war, actions not morally acceptable become acceptable Essay Example for Free

In time of war, actions not morally acceptable become acceptable Essay We live in an imperfect world where human interactions breeds frictions occasioned by participation of different individuals in matters of society, economics and even religious inclinations of the different masses. Human beings have voluntarily or involuntarily found themselves in different areas of life due to their races or ideologies and consequently have had to act in line with a certain set of belief. Therefore this has bred differences in how a different society approaches issues relating to both governance and interaction and lack of consensus among individuals and sometimes groups within and without have led to violence. This violence is sometimes political and involves a set of organized military groups fighting for a certain goal that is usually political in nature. War is rough on the participants and mostly on innocent civilians caught in the middle of the chaos. The questions that strongly begs a just answer is â€Å"can there be a just war. † Hedge (2002) claims that in essence there is not much difference between the U S government and Alqueda arguing that despite what motives drives them to violence both the outcome is death of innocent civilians. However there are those who feel that to agree with Hedge would be to deny that there cannot be moral reasons to go to war and that the presuppositions behind the just war theory are fallacious and misguiding. In this regard it would be equal to agreeing that no reason should drive a country to wage war on another or even that terror groups must be allowed to exploit the weakness of less able nations in order to bring terror to perceived enemies. In my opinion such a stand is untenable and unrealistic and a way to avoid taking responsibility in accordance to the natural laws of justice that guarantees freedom and rights of individuals (Zupan, 2004). It is therefore important to highlight that it is hypocritical to deny that a party might be justified to wage war to counter similar aggressiveness or as way of stopping gross violations against fellow human beings. All human beings have a right to life is a clearly accepted fact and anything that contravenes such a fact would ordinarily be considered immoral and against fundamental pillars of justice, rights and freedoms. However whereby a war has been taken as to being justified then a waiver is taken in order to grant the involved parties the right to take away the lives of those perceived to be the enemies. In addition the loss of civilian life in the course of such a war is simply taken to be the costs of bringing such changes as necessitate that war. Hedge actually accuses Washington of stooping so low as to use death as a means of expressing its dissatisfaction with certain issues (Hedge, 2002). In other wars certain groups of people who previously viewed as morally incorrect might receive a change of perceptions simply because they direct their atrocities to the perceived enemy. In this regard the common phrase that an enemy of my enemy is my enemy becomes true. There are those who would argue for the sovereignty of nations and that a state has a right from external interference. In ordinary times such a status applies and there are clear efforts to observe and even promote the status quo. However in times of war sovereign borders are breached and this usually leads to the removal of leadership or occupation of such state. Hedge (2002) however seeks to point out that while he is not a war supporter, that it is sometimes important to use force to counter a force that is much immoral as compared to the countering force. It is therefore important then that we must understand that we have a moral responsibility to take care not to ignore or indeed breach the fundamental rights of citizens as we engage in war. Hedges, C. (2002). War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning. New York: Anchor books. Zupan, D. (2004). War, Morality and Autonomy. London: Ashgate publishings.

Ecstasy Abuse Essay -- essays research papers

Article 1 C) Source of Article: Bureau of Medicine and Surgery Title of Article: Navy Medicine Steps Up to Help Prevent Ecstasy Abuse A)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Talks about how the military is not protected by ecstasy abuse. They may have a zero tolerance mentality about it but that still does not stop people from accessing it. The Navy found a medicine that makes hiding of having the trace of ecstasy on a person harder to hide. They found a better way to detect ecstasy with a certain drug exam that is ahead of technology. Instead if a normal test for amphetamines they found a new agent that can even trace the smallest amount of ecstasy on a person system. This medicine has been tested for the past two years and was tested again before they sent out the troops to go to Afghanistan. Ecstasy symptoms can be decreased facility to regulate sleep and emotions, as well as increase changes in hear attack, stroke and possibility of death. Hopefully this will shorten the amount of people using drugs like ecstasy in any military branch while on task. B)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The authors idea with writing this article is that ecstasy abuse will be eliminated from all military branches. This idea is backed up with what he said about the testing results, â€Å"Navy Medicine also tested the product at the Navy Drug Screening Lab in Jacksonville, Fla., before rolling it out to the troops†. This comment by the author can be interpreted as successful results. Another of the author’s ideas or comments is that he claims to say that ecstasy abuse is rising in all over the country, and that the military should get more involved to stop it. The military is improving ecstasy testing on humans. â€Å"Although the Navy maintains a zero-tolerance position on drug abuse†, this means they are doing their best to stop drug abuse, and they are improving testing methods. Article 2 C) Source of Article: Naval Media Center and Bureau of Naval Personnel Title of Article: From Ecstasy to Agony Author: Capt. John Jemionek and Jo1 Joseph Date: Unknown A)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He gives some of the street names for ecstasy and he calls it the club drug mostly because it is used at raves and such parties. Also goes on to call it the â€Å"safe drug†. Then even more he gets an in depth look of how the drugs looks and that it comes in a capsule about the size of an aspirin in po... ...zing on increased demand for the drug in the United States. Authorities are especially concerned about the role of organized crime in Ecstasy trafficking. Russian mafias have recently forged relationships with European traffickers and begun to dominate the global Ecstasy trade. The profit potential of Ecstasy is huge for such traffickers. Ecstasy tablets can be bought in Amsterdam for as little as 50 cents to $2 each. B)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this article the writer talks about the urgency that our grate nation has over this simple deadly looking pill. He gives explicit detail in his believed and has insight information about the drug trafficking ways. By some sort f thought the writer believes that the drugs are sponsoring terrorism and that people in the Middle East and Russia use this money to buy weapons. He also talks about the Columbians trafficking ecstasy to the United States. Says that our nation is in great fear of this drug and what it can cause to our society. The writer believes that these drugs are going destroy America little by little by destroying the youth of America. Then with this they can invade the nation and destroy everything that we have built.

Essay --

Jeremy Burrafato 12-11-13 ENG 4800-01 Final Essay Psychoanalytical Criticism on Stories of Madmen The descent into madness has been a facet of many stories throughout human history. Voices in one’s head, delusions, as well as dreams and nightmares, are common in these types of stories. In Edgar Allen Poe’s The Tell-Tale Heart, and Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol, the characters within the stories face these sorts of problems. In The Tell-Tale Heart, the narrator/protagonist experiences an obsession with a physical trait of an elderly man, in which he associates with evil. This evil eye and the obsession in which the narrator holds for it eventually cause the narrator to do the unthinkable. Kill the old man. A Christmas Carol tells the tale of an older gentleman who experiences a series of encounters with ghosts who show him the error of his ways. These dream like scenarios in which he encounters these spirits are none other than actual dreams and wish-fulfillment based on his fears and guilt. Both of these classic tales weave notions of psychological intricacies within their pages. The Tell-Tale Heart details the descent into madness of a man who is suffering from some form of paranoid schizophrenia; while A Christmas Carol reveals that its main character while not having a traumatic form of mental illness like that of Poe’s story, does share many anxieties and delusions based on guilt and obsession much like the narrator in The Tell-Tale Heart. Both characters have and cope with varying degrees of mental illness, or at least symptoms of such illnesses in some form or another. For the purpose of this essay, the version of the story that will be referenced is the one handed out to us in our class, thus any references to the st... ...in the forms of countless movies, including the likes of Disney, as well as being a record breaking theatrical play. Charles Dickens work has been a staple of writing for years, and this piece is no exception. The story of A Christmas Carol begins with a misery old man named Scrooge working in his counting house on Christmas Eve, his clerk sitting in the front working as well. Various people come inside to greet him including his nephew whom he basically tells to leave after being invited to a Christmas party. He is then visited by people who are looking for donations for the poor. This sets up Scrooges hate for the holiday as well as his greed. His greed is the primary basis for his loneliness and anger, which is amplified during the holiday season. To understand Scrooges hate for the holiday season, one could look back to a time when he would have enjoyed it.

Teaching English

Teaching Readers of English â€Å"A book of this kind is long overdue. . . . It is a giant contribution to the ? eld. With its emphasis on a socioliterate approach to reading and literacy, it nicely captures the prevailing view of academic literacy instruction. Its extremely skillful and well-developed balancing act between theory and practice allows it to appeal to a wide variety of readers. Pre- and in-service teachers, in particular, will bene? t immensely. † Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University â€Å"A compendium like this that addresses reading issues at a variety of levels and in a variety of ways is most welcome. . . Congratulations on excellent work, a fabulous partnership, and on moving us all forward in our thinking about reading issues! † Vaidehi Ramanathan, University of California, Davis A comprehensive manual for pre- and in-service ESL and EFL educators, this frontline text balances insights from current reading theory and research with highly practica l, ? eld-tested strategies for teaching and assessing L2 reading in secondary and post-secondary contexts. John S. Hedgcock is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey Institute of International Studies. Dana R.Ferris is Associate Professor in the University Writing Program at the University of California, Davis. Teaching Readers of English Students, Texts, and Contexts John S. Hedgcock Monterey Institute of International Studies Dana R. Ferris University of California, Davis First published 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www. eBookstore. tandf. co. uk.  © 2009 Routledge, Taylor and Franci s All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi? ation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-203-88026-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10: 0–415–99964–2 (hbk) ISBN 10: 0–8058–6347–8 (pbk) ISBN 10: 0–203–88026–9 (ebk) ISBN 13: 978–0–415–99964–9 (hbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–8058â₠¬â€œ6347–5 (pbk) ISBN 13: 978–0–203–88026–5 (ebk) Brief Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 L2 Reading: Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 L2 Reading: Focus on the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4 Syllabus Design and Instructional Planning for the L2 Reading Course . . . .115 5 Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6 Reading for Quantity: The Benefits and Challenges of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7 Using Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 8 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read . . . . . . . .1 The Nature of Literacy and Literacies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Working with Writing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Reading Processes: Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Describing and De? ning Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Bottom-Up Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . .17 Top-Down Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Interactive and Integrated Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Understanding L2 Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Components of L2 Reading: Skills and Subskills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 L2 Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2 L2 Reading: Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Who Are L2 Readers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 International (Visa) Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EFL Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Immigrant Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Generation 1. 5 Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 viii Contents Implications of Multiple Student Audiences for Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 L2 Reading in Non-academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 What a Reader Knows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 In? uences of Family and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 School In? uences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Types of Reader Schemata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 What the L2 Reader Knows: Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Individual Differences among L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Learner Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Focus on the Reader: Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Needs Assessment and Course Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Text Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Classroom Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3 L2 Reading: Focus on the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 What Is a Text? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Morphosyntactic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Text Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Text Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Text Information: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Focus on the Text: Implications for Text Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Selecting and Analyzing Texts for Intensive Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Text Selection Issues: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Focus on the Text: Building Bottom-Up Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Bottom-Up Skills: Approaches and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Summary: Textual Elements and Bottom-Up Instruction. . . . . . . . . .103 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Appendix 3. 1: Second Chances—If Only We Could Start Again . . . . . . . .112 Appendix 3. 2: Sample Mini-lesson on Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Contents 4 ix Syllabus Design and Instructional Planning for the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Needs Assessment: Understanding Learner Needs and Institutional Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Demographic Pro? le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 L2 Pro? ciency and Literate Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Student Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Student Preferences, Strategies, and Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Designing and Administering NA Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Establishing Goals and Objectives for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . .125 Developing an L2 Literacy Syllabus: Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Crafting the Course Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Constructing the Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Selecting and Working with Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Planning L2 Literacy Lessons: Principles and Precepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Specifying Lesson Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Organizing a Daily Less on Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Lesson Planning Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Appendix 4. 1: Sample Needs Assessment Questionnaire for a Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Appendix 4. 2: Sample EAP Reading Course Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Appendix 4. 3: Textbook Evaluation Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5 Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Background: Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Stages of Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Before Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 During Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 After Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Putting It All Together: Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . 190 Suggestions for Intensive Reading Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Appendix 5. 1: The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Appendix 5. 2: Sample Text-Surveying Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 x 6 Contents Reading for Quantity: The Benefits and Challenges ofExtensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Extensive Reading: De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Perspectives on Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Bene? ts of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Improves Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Develops Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Extensive Reading Builds Background Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Extensive Reading Builds Vocabulary and Grammar Knowledge . . . .213 Extensive Reading Improves Production Skills (Speaking and Especially Writing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Extensive Reading Promotes Student Con? dence and Motivation . . . 216 Summary: The Case for Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 (Perceived) Problems and Challenges with Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . .217 Time and Pre-Existing Curricular Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Curricular Models for Extensive Reading in L2 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Overall Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Extensive Reading in a Language Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Extensive Reading in a Foreign-Language Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Extensive Reading in Non-Academic Class Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Extensive Reading in Academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Practical Matters: Implementation of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Getting Students on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 Providing Access to Reading Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Helping Students Find and Select Appropriate Materials . . . . . . . . . .230 Designing Classroom Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 Developing Accountability and Evaluation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . .234 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 7 Using Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 Contexts for L2 Literature Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Bene? ts of Literature for L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Cultural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Rich Language Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Input for Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 Enjoyable and Motivating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Improved Student Con? dence in L2 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Personal Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Contents xi Stimulating Writing Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Critical Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bene? ts: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Using Literature with L2 Readers: Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Teacher Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Time Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Text Dif? culty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Possible Drawbacks: Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Teaching Literature in the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 How Much Literature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 What Kinds of Texts?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Where Do Literary Texts Fit in Intensive and Extensive Reading Approaches? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Literature in an Extensive Reading Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Speci? c Considerations for Teaching Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Literary Metalanguage: To Teach or Not to Teach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Teaching Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Appendix 7. 1: The Story of An Hour (Kate Chopin [1894]) . . . . . . . . . . . .280 Appendix 7. 2: The Road Not Taken (Robert Frost [1916]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283Components of Word Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 The Role of Lexical Knowledge in Developing L2 Readin g Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Interactions between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading . . . . . . . . . 291 Incidental Vocabulary Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Direct Vocabulary Instruction: Explicit Interventions in Teaching Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Lexical Enhancement and L2 Reading: Challenges andTools . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Vocabulary Size and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Word Frequency Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 Direct Vocabulary Teaching and L2 Reading Instruction: Practices and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Spend Time on Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teach Effective Inferenc ing Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Teach Effective Dictionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306 Consider Working with Graded Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 xii Contents Ask Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 Match De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Practice Semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Encourage Use of Word Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Assign Vocabulary Notebooks or Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 The Purposes of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Principles and Concepts of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Validity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Washback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333 Product and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 A Framework for Designing Classroom L2 Reading Assessments. . . . . . .335 Reading Assessment Variables: Standards, Readers, and Texts . . . . . . . . . .337 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Reader Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338 Text Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 Task and Item Development in L2 Reading Assessment: Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Controlled Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Constructed Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 Maximizing Controlled and Constructed Response Approaches in L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Alternative L2 Literacy As sessment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 Reading Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Literacy Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Self-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Summary: Toward a Coherent Literacy Assessment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Preface This book presents approaches to the teaching of second language (L2) readers in the context of current theoretical perspectives on L2 literacy processes, practices, and readers. Teaching Readers of English is designed as a comprehensive teacherpreparation book, as well as a resource for in-service teachers and L2 literacy researchers.The volume focuses on preparing instructors who work with L2 and multilingual readers at the secondary, post-secondary, and adult levels. Teaching Readers of English likewise examines vocabulary development, both as a tool for facilitating effective reading and as a language-learning goal in itself. We have attempted to craft the book to appeal to several distinct audiences: Tea cher educators and graduate students in TESOL preparation programs; In-service ESL and EFL instructors currently engaged in teaching reading and related literacy skills;Pre-service teachers of secondary English and their instructors; In-service teachers of secondary English; Researchers involved in describing L2 literacy and investigating L2 reading pedagogy. Teaching Readers of English addresses the needs of the ? rst four groups by providing overviews of research related to L2 reading, as well as numerous opportunities to re? ect on, develop, and practice the teaching skills needed for effective ESL and EFL literacy instruction. We hope that researchers in the ? eld will also bene? t from our syntheses and analyses of the literature on various topics in L2 literacy education.Preview and post-reading review questions in Preface xv each chapter are designed to stimulate readers’ thinking about the material presented. Application Activities at the end of each chapter provide h ands–on practice for pre- and in-service teachers, as well as resources for teacher educators. Because of this book’s dual emphasis on theory and practice in L2 literacy instruction, it would serve as an appropriate primary or supplementary text in courses focusing on L2 reading theory, as well as practical courses that address literacy instruction. As a discipline, L2 reading is still viewed by some as an emergent ? eld.Consequently, few resources have been produced to help pre- and in-service L2 educators to become experts in a discipline that is becoming recognized as a profession in its own right. Therefore, one of our primary goals in Teaching Readers of English is to furnish readers with a synthesis of theory and practice in a rapidly evolving community of scholars and professionals. We have consistently and intentionally focused on providing apprentice teachers with practice activities, such as reader background surveys, text analyses, and instructional planning tasks that can be used to develop the complex skills entailed in teaching L2 reading.Although all topics of discussion are ? rmly grounded in reviews of relevant research, a feature that we feel distinguishes this volume from others is its array of hands-on, practical examples, materials, and tasks. By synthesizing theory and research in accessible terms, we have endeavored to craft chapter content and exercises in ways that enable readers to appreciate the relevance of the ? eld’s knowledge base to their current and future classroom settings and student readers. Overview of the Book We have sequenced the book’s chapters to move from general themes to speci? c pedagogical concerns.Situated in a broad literacy framework, Chapter 1 presents an overview of reading theory and pedagogical models that have in? uenced and shaped approaches to L2 literacy instruction. It also presents a comparative discussion of writing systems, culminating with a discussion of the dynamic in teractions of skills and strategies that comprise L2 reading. Most importantly, Chapter 1 introduces an argument that we pursue throughout the volume; that is, whereas certain literacy processes transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries, unique characteristics and challenges set L2 reading apart from L1 reading.We embrace the view that teaching learners to read successfully in an L2 such as English requires thought, analysis, and attention. Chapters 2 and 3 focus respectively on the two most important elements of the interactive process known as reading: readers and texts. In Chapter 2, we discuss and de? ne more precisely what characterizes an L2 reader, acknowledging the growing complexity of the term and the diversity of the student audience. Chapter 2 examines numerous background variables that in? uence literacy development, including the unique characteristics of individual readers.Chapter 3 provides a de? nition and in-depth analysis of the structural properties of text, x vi Preface with a speci? c focus on challenges faced by readers in their encounters with (L1 and) L2 texts and with English texts in particular. Chapter 3 concludes with a practical discussion of the linguistic components of texts, suggesting that teachers in some contexts may wish to present direct lessons targeting these features. In all of these chapters, we aim to present a perspective on L2 reading instruction that is ? mly grounded in the precept that literacies are socially constructed. Based on the socioliterate premises outlined especially in Chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 4 addresses fundamental concerns related to the teaching of any L2 literacy course: needs assessment, syllabus design, materials selection, and lesson planning. Chapter 5 (intensive reading) and Chapter 6 (extensive reading) present detailed examinations of the two major curricular approaches to teaching L2 reading. The remaining chapters then focus on speci? c topics of persistent nterest to L2 literacy educa tors: the use of literature in L2 reading instruction (Chapter 7), vocabulary learning and teaching (Chapter 8), and approaches to reading assessment (Chapter 9). Although the organization of individual chapters varies according to topic, all contain the following components: Questions for Re? ection. These pre-reading questions invite readers to consider their prior experiences as students and readers and to anticipate how these insights might inform their professional beliefs and teaching practices; Further Reading and Resources.A concise list at the end of each chapter provides a quick overview of the print and online sources cited, as well as other outlets of relevant information; Figures and Tables. These textual illustrations provide sample authentic activities, lesson plans, sample texts, and so on, which teachers can use and adapt in their own instructional practice; Re? ection and Review. These follow-up questions ask readers to examine and evaluate the theoretical informat ion and practical suggestions introduced in the main text; Application Activities. Application Activities follow each Re? ction and Review section, presenting a range of hands-on practical exercises. Tasks include collecting data from novice readers, text analysis, evaluating real-world reading materials, developing lesson plans, designing classroom activities, and executing and evaluating classroom tasks and assessments. Several chapters also include Appendices that contain sample texts and instructional materials. As readers, writers, researchers, teachers, and teacher educators, we ? nd the ? eld of L2 literacy development (which entails both reading and writing) to offer many challenges and rewards.It was our classroom experience working with Preface xvii multilingual readers and with L2 teachers that initially ignited our interest in compiling a book that would help teachers develop both professional knowledge and con? dence as teachers of reading. We hope that this book will p rovide its readers with accurate information, meaningful insights, and practical ideas for classroom teaching. It is also our hope that Teaching Readers of English will convey our enthusiasm and passion for this rapidly evolving and engaging ? eld of intellectual inquiry and professional practice.John’s Acknowledgments Thanks are due to the Monterey Institute for my Fall semester 2007 sabbatical leave, which I dedicated to exploring the L2 reading literature anew and to writing early draft material. I owe special thanks to the M. A. students in my Spring 2008 ED 562 (Teaching Reading) course, who diligently read the draft version of the book, responded thoughtfully and substantially to the material, and reminded me how enjoyable it can be to look at teaching in novel ways. Their hard work, enthusiasm for reading, and passion for teaching were infectious and energizing.As always, I am also indebted to the Library staff at the Monterey Institute, who not only supply me continua lly with volumes of books and articles, but who also cheerfully grant me more special privileges than I deserve. Like Dana, I would like to credit an early source of inspiration for me, Professor Stephen Krashen, whose teaching and research drew me to literacy studies when I was a graduate student. Finally, I offer my profound thanks to Simon Hsu for his perpetual reassurance, moral support, and good cheer through the ups and downs of the writing process.Dana’s Acknowledgments I am grateful to my graduate students and former colleagues at California State University, Sacramento who have helped me to develop and pilot materials used in this book. In particular, I would like to thank the CSUS M. A. students in my Spring 2008 English 215A (ESL Reading/Vocabulary) course, who patiently worked with the draft version of this book, responded enthusiastically, and gave great suggestions. As always, I am thankful for the opportunity to have my thinking and practice informed and challe nged by these individuals.I am also grateful for the sabbatical leave I received from my former institution, CSUS, for the Spring 2007 semester, which allowed me extended time for this project. Working on this book has also made me again appreciative of the contributions of two of my graduate school professors—Stephen Krashen and the late David Eskey of the University of Southern California—not only to the ? eld of L2 reading research but also to the formation of my own knowledge base and philosophies on the subject. Both were excellent teachers and mentors, and I am indebted to them for their work, their example, and the ways they encouraged me as a student. viii Preface On a personal level, I would like to extend my love and gratitude to my husband, Randy Ferris, my daughters, Laura and Melissa Ferris, and my faithful yellow Labrador retriever, Winnie the Pooch, who was a great companion and thoughtful sounding board during my sabbatical! Joint Acknowledgments Our wo rk on this project would have been much less rewarding and enjoyable without the gentle guidance and persistent encouragement of our outstanding editor, Naomi Silverman. Her expertise and unfailingly insightful advice assisted us in innumerable ways as our ideas evolved and as the collaborative writing process unfolded.Despite her sometimes crushing workload, Naomi managed to help us out whenever we needed her input. We offer our profound thanks for her con? dence in us and for her many contributions to this book’s evolution. In addition, we deeply appreciate the incisive and exceptionally useful feedback on earlier versions provided by Barbara Birch, Alan Hirvela, and Vaidehi Ramanathan. Finally, we are grateful for the diligent work of Meeta Pendharkar and Alfred Symons at Routledge, and of Richard Willis, who saw the project through its ? nal stages of development.John Hedgcock Dana Ferris Credits Figure 1. 3 is derived and adapted from a drawing in Bernhardt (1991b), Read ing development in a second language: Theoretical, empirical, and classroom perspectives (p. 15), originally published by Ablex. Figure 1. 4 is adapted from Birch (2007), English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom (2nd ed. , p. 3). Figure 4. 4 is adapted from Ferris and Hedgcock (2005), Teaching ESL composition: Purpose, process, and practice (2nd ed. , p. 100). Figures 1. 4 and 4. 4 are used with permission from Taylor and Francis. Figure 1. originally appeared in Bernhardt (2005), â€Å"Progress and procrastination in second language reading† (Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, pp. 133–150). Figure 8. 1 was adapted from a similar ? gure in Nation (2001), Learning vocabulary in another language. We thank Cambridge University Press for its policy concerning reproduction and adaptation of these resources. The â€Å"Second Chances—If Only We Could Start Again† selection by Brahm in Appendix 3. 1 originally appeared in the Sacramento Bee in 2001; the t ext appears here with permission. Sarton’s (1974) essay, â€Å"The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life† (Appendix 5. ), ? rst appeared in the New York Times, as did the Greenhouse (2003) essay, â€Å"Going for the look—but risking discrimination† (Appendix 5. 2); both selections are used with permission. Figure 9. 2 is based on and adapted from Urquhart and Weir (1998), Reading in a second language: Process, product, and practice (Addison Wesley Longman). xx Credits Figure 9. 11 is a slightly altered rubric from Groeber (2007), Designing and using rubrics for reading and language arts, K-6 (p. 23). This ? gure appears with permission from Corwin Press. Chapter 1 Fundamentals of L1 nd L2 Literacy Reading and Learning to Read Questions for Re? ection Do you have any recollection of learning to read at home or at school in your primary language or in a second/foreign language? If so, what were those processes like? How were they similar or different across lan guages? How is text-based communication similar to and distinct from speechbased communication? How is learning to read and write distinct from acquiring speech and listening skills? Why? What are some of the principal challenges that you associate with reading certain kinds of text?What are the main obstacles that novice readers face in learning to read? Why do you think it is important for novice ESL and EFL teachers to become acquainted with the principles and practices of reading instruction (in contrast to other skills, such as speaking, listening, writing, or grammar)? The high premium that many people place on literacy skills, including those necessary for performing well in school and in the workplace, emerges largely from the degree to which educated adults depend on text-based and digital resources for learning and communication.When educated people think about 2 Teaching Readers of English how and why literacy is important, few question the fundamental notion that reading is a crucial building block, if not the chief cornerstone, of success at school, at work, and in society (Feiler, 2007; Gee, 2008; McCarty, 2005). In primary education around the globe, one of the ? rst things children do at school is participate in literacy lessons and â€Å"learn to read. † Of course, â€Å"the developmental transformations that mark the way to reading expertise begin in infancy, not in school† (Wolf, 2007, p. 223).In many parts of the world, primary-level teachers receive specialized education and training in teaching children to read, sometimes in two or more languages. As children advance toward adolescence, they may undergo sustained literacy instruction designed to enhance their reading comprehension, ? uency, and ef? ciency. Formal â€Å"reading† courses taper off as children progress toward and beyond secondary school—except, perhaps, for foreign or second language instruction. Many language teachers assume that teaching and lea rning a foreign or second language (L2)1 depends on reading skills.In fact, they may devote considerable time and effort to promoting L2 reading skills among their students, often under the assumption that learners already have a developed system of literate knowledge and skill in their primary language(s) (L1s). In contrast, teachers in disciplines such as science and mathematics, social studies, and the arts may need to assume that their pupils or students already know â€Å"how to read. † Such educators may not provide much, if any, explicit instruction in the mechanics of processing texts.Similarly, many teachers of writing at both the secondary and tertiary levels often assume that students know â€Å"how to read† (or at least that students have been taught to read). Paradoxically, while formal education, professional activities, and use of the Web depend on reading ef? cacy, many educators ? nd themselves under-equipped to help their students develop their readin g skills when students need instructional intervention. In other words, we may not recognize the complexity of reading because, as pro? ient readers, we often take reading ability for granted, assuming that reading processes are automatic. It is easy to overlook the complexity of reading processes, as many of us do not have to think much about how we read. After all, you are able to read and understand the words on this page because you have somehow â€Å"learned to read† English and have successfully automatized your ability to decode alphabetic symbols and interpret meaning from text. Precisely how you achieved this level of skill, however, is still not fully understood (Smith, 2004; Wolf, 2007).Our experiences as students, language teachers, and teacher educators have led us to a profound appreciation of the complexity of the reading process and for the fact that, for many novice readers—whether working in L1 or L2—reading processes are far from automatic. We have also come to recognize the sometimes overwhelming challenges of teaching reading to language learners. Reading, learning to read, and teaching reading are neither easy nor effortless. In this chapter, we consider fundamental aspects of the reading process that make it a complex social and cognitive operation involving readers, writers, texts,Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 3 contexts, and purposes. We will introduce contemporary principles of literacy and literacy development to familiarize readers with de? nitions of key constructs in the interrelated ? elds of literacy studies, L1 and L2 reading research, and pedagogy. Our aim is to help readers develop a working knowledge of key issues, insights, and controversies in L2 literacy education by presenting an overview of key theories, models, and metaphors. Our chief focus is on the literacy development of multilingual learners in secondary and postsecondary educational settings. Naturally, we refer to research on L1 literac y development among children, which has richly informed agendas for L2 literacy research and instruction. In the ? rst part of this chapter, we consider contemporary views of literacy as a socio-psychological construct that frames reading development and processes among L1 and L2 learners. By comparing research and theory associated with prevailing processing metaphors, we explore instructional issues of particular relevance to the teaching of L2 reading. These issues include the niqueness of L2 reading processes, interactions between L1 and L2 literacy, and the importance of strategies-based instruction in promoting L2 literacy. The Nature of Literacy and Literacies Before examining the mechanics of reading, we must situate reading processes and instruction with respect to the sociocultural and educational contexts where reading skills are valued. As Urquhart and Weir (1998) noted, â€Å"the teacher of reading is in the business of attempting to improve literacy† (p. 1). Alt hough reading skill is central to any de? ition of literacy, L2 educators should understand that literacy entails not only cognitive abilities (Bernhardt, 1991a, 1991b), but also knowledge of sociocultural structures and ideologies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000; Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007; Gee, 1991, 2003; Goldenberg, Rueda, & August, 2006; Lewis, Enciso, & Moje, 2007; Perez, 2004b, 2004d; Robinson, McKenna, & Wedman, 2007). Literacy, after all, is â€Å"a part of the highest human impulse to think and rethink experience in place† (Brandt, 1990, p. 1).We can refer to reading and writing as literate processes, and we frequently use the term literacy as a countable noun when describing skills, knowledge, practices, and beliefs allied with speci? c disciplines and discourse communities (e. g. , academic literacy, workplace literacy, computer literacy, ? nancial literacy, and so forth). Across disciplines, wrote Barton (2007), â€Å"the term literacy has become a code word for mor e complex views of what is involved in reading and writing† (p. 5). A literate person can therefore become â€Å"competent and knowledgeable in specialized areas† (Barton, 2007, p. 9). Literacies are multiple, overlapping, and diverse: â€Å"People have different literacies which they make use of, associate with different domains of life. These differences are increased across different cultures or historical periods† (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Eagleton and Dobler (2007), for example, insisted that â€Å"current de? nitions of literacy must include digital texts such as those found on the Web† (p. 28). 4 Teaching Readers of English Contemporary conceptions of literacy do not characterize literacy merely as a cluster of isolated processing skills.Scribner and Cole (1981) framed literacy as a system of socially organized literacy practices. This view led to an â€Å"emerging theory of literacy-as-social-practice† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 172), now widely known as the New Literacy Studies (NLS) (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Street, 1984, 1995). As a socioculturally organized system, literacy consists of much more than an individual’s ability to work with print-based media. Reading and writing may be the most visible or tangible processes in literacy development, but literacy practices go beyond reading and writing alone (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007; Kern, 2000; Purcell-Gates, 2007).Literacy practices refer to â€Å"common patterns in using reading and writing in a particular situation. People bring their cultural knowledge to an activity† (Barton, 2007, p. 36). In an NLS view, literacy is more than a skill or ability that people â€Å"acquire†Ã¢â‚¬â€it is something that people do in the course of everyday life. We can refer to what people do with their knowledge of literate practices as literacy events. Heath (1982) de? ned a literacy event as â€Å"any occasion in which a piece of writing is integral to the nature of the participants’ interactions and their interpretative processes† (p. 3). Barton’s (2007) synthesis of the complementary relationship between literacy practices and literacy events illustrates the inherently social nature of literacy: Together events and practices are the two basic units of analysis of the social activity of literacy. Literate events are the particular activities where literacy has a role; they may be regular repeated activities. Literacy practices are the general cultural ways of utilizing literacy which people draw upon in a literacy event. [I]n the example . . . f a man discussing the contents of the local paper with a friend, the two of them sitting in the living room planning a letter to the newspaper is a literacy event. In deciding who does what, where and when it is done, along with the associated ways of talking and the ways of writing, the two participants make use of their literacy practices. (p. 37) Literacy is further understood in terms of the individual’s relationship to literate communities and institutions (e. g. , fellow readers and writers, teachers, employers, school, online networks, and so on).Scholars such as Freire (1968), Gee (1988, 1996), and Street (1984) have proposed that literacy can privilege some people while excluding others, as societies and discourse communities use literacy to enforce social controls and maintain hierarchies. The NLS approach assumes (1) that context is fundamental to any understanding of literacy and its development (Barton, 2007; Barton & Tusting, 2005; Collins & Blot, 2003) and (2) that literate and oral practices overlap and interact (Finnegan, 1988; Goody, 1987; Olson & Torrance, 1991; Stubbs, 1980; Tarone & Bigelow, 2005).Because it is grounded in social context, NLS research offers implications for how we might view reading processes, reading development, and reading Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 5 pedagogy. As already suggested, one insight that depa rts from conventional notions is that literacy consists of much more than reading and writing (Czerniewska, 1992; Kern, 2000; Purcell-Gates, 2007; Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2008; Smith, 2004, 2007). Literacy practices and literacy events are not limited to libraries and schools. Literacy development is a process that begins early in childhood, long before children attend school, and involves many different skills and experiences† (Lesaux, Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2006a, p. 77). Although L2 reading teachers may be con? ned to the classroom in their encounters with learners, literacy education should not be limited to promoting school-based literacies alone (Freire & Macedo, 1987; Gee, 2000; Kalantzis & Cope, 2000). After all, literacy is â€Å"rooted in people’s intimate everyday experiences with text† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 173). These daily experiences can range from the most mundane (e. g. scribbling a grocery list, dashing off a quick e-mail mess age, checking MapQuest for driving directions) to those with high-stakes consequences (e. g. , composing a college admissions essay or crafting a letter of resignation). Classrooms, of course, are unquestionably key sites for cultivating school and non-school literacies (Perez, 2004a). Students must develop literate skills that will enable them to succeed in school, although some of these skills may never be part of the curriculum (Alvermann, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 2006; Bloome, Carter, Christina, Otto, & Shuart-Faris, 2005; Gee, 1996, 2005; Kutz, 1997; Perez, 2004c).In other words, surviving and thriving in school require much more than developing literacy in the traditional sense: Learners must also develop new behaviors and attitudes while cultivating social alliances. Novice readers must learn â€Å"a set of complex role relationships, general cognitive techniques, ways of approaching problems, different genres of talk and interaction, and an intricate set of values c oncerned with communication, interaction, and society as a whole† (Wertsch, 1985, pp. 35–36).Literate practices and literacy events of all sorts involve interaction and social activity around written texts, which are the products of a kind of technology— writing itself (Bazerman, 2007; Grabe & Kaplan, 1996; Olson, 1994; Olson & Cole, 2006; Ong, 1982; Wolf, 2007). 3 As such, writing is a value-laden cultural form, â€Å"a social product whose shape and in? uence depend upon prior political and ideological factors† (Gee, 1996, p. 58). Because â€Å"the immediate social context determines the use and nature of texts† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 75), texts and their uses are inherently tied to power at some level: â€Å"[L]iteracy can be seen as doing the work of discourse and power/knowledge† (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, p. 151). In this view, literacy and literacy development are never neutral, as literate activity involves learners, teachers, and many others (Gee, 2002). Moreover, â€Å"all literacy events carry ideological meanings† (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 178), although we may not be aware of these meanings in the learning or teaching process. Nonetheless, L2 literacy educators can bene? from cultivating a critical awareness of how â€Å"literacy practices provide the textual means by which dominant values and identities (e. g. , avid consumers, obedient workers, patriotic citizens) are normalized and, at times, resisted† (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, pp. 152–153). 4 6 Teaching Readers of English Such critical perspectives, informed by NLS research and theory, are valuable for reading teachers: They remind us that literacy practices and literacy events pervade culture and everyday life. Literacy emerges as a kind of knowledge and skill base, as well as a socialization process (John-Steiner & Meehan, 2000).Describing early literacy development, Smith (1988) argued that children become successful reader s â€Å"only if they are admitted into a community of written language users,† which he called the â€Å"literacy club† (p. 2). Before they can read or write a single word, children become members of a literacy club similar to the community of oral language users into which infants are inducted at birth. â€Å"The procedures are the same, and the bene? ts are the same—admission to the club rapidly results in becoming like established members in spoken language, in literacy, and in many other ways as well† (Smith, 1988, p. ). Unique conditions affect adolescents and adults acquiring L2 literacy, yet the principle that literacy is socially embedded unquestionably applies to developing literacy in an additional language. Kern (2000) de? ned L2 literacy as â€Å"the use of socially-, historically-, and culturally-situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts† (p. 16). Being literate in another language requires a critical knowle dge of how textual conventions and contexts of use shape one another. And because literacy is purpose-sensitive, it is dynamic â€Å"across and within discourse communities and cultures.It draws on a wide range of cognitive abilities, on knowledge of written and spoken language, on knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge† (Kern, 2000, p. 16). These dynamic aspects of literacy must include digital literacy (sometimes called cyberliteracy or electronic literacy), which we associate with â€Å"technologymediated textual, communicative, and informational practices† (Ingraham, Levy, McKenna, & Roberts, 2007, p. 162). Literacy and reading in the 21st century must be characterized in terms of â€Å"an ecology that includes broad-based access to many different media† (Mackey, 2007, p. 13).These media include television and ? lm, as well as digital audio and video ? les that can be stored and retrieved at will on a computer or other device in a range of formats (E agleton & Dobler, 2007; Gee, 2003; Hawisher, 2004; Kapitzke & Bruce, 2006; Olson & Cole, 2006). Laptop computers, MP3 players, iPods, handheld devices, and mobile telephones make print and non-print sources available almost anywhere. The social milieu in much of the world is saturated with digital media. In fact, â€Å"very few Western young people come to print texts without a vast background of exposure to texts in many other media† (Mackey, 2007, p. 3). We must expect L1 and L2 students in many settings to know how to navigate websites and electronic texts, view artwork and photographs, listen to audio recordings, and watch live action, video, and animations, all with impressive facility (McKenna, Labbo, Kieffer, & Reinking, 2006; McKenna, Labbo, Reinking, & Zucker, 2008; Thorne & Black, 2007; Valmont, 2002). Moore (2001) estimated that more than 80% of the data available in the world is â€Å"born digital, not on paper, ? che, charts, ? lms, or maps† (p. 28). That proportion has unquestionably risen above 80%, and the availability of computers inFundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 7 school settings has also increased. Parsad and Jones (2005) reported that, as of 2003, nearly 100% of U. S. schools had Internet access, 93% of classrooms were wired, and the mean ratio of learners to wired computers was about 4. 4 to 1. Access to wired computers in schools with high minority enrollments and in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods unfortunately drops below these averages (DeBell & Chapman, 2003; Parsad & Jones, 2005; Wells & Lewis, 2005); only about 16% of the world’s population currently use the Internet (de Argaez, 2006).Nonetheless, as a consequence of increasingly widespread Internet access and the proliferation of laptop and desktop computers with CD-ROM and DVD capabilities, many of today’s students â€Å"can instantaneously access more information delivered in multiple formats than at any other time in the history of educa tion† (Valmont, 2002, p. 92). For this growing learner population, â€Å"literacy in a polysymbolic environment† includes expertise in decoding and encoding print-based media, as well as â€Å"interpreting and constructing in visual and other symbolic worlds† (Valmont, 2002, p. 2). More speci? cally, digital literacy entails not only producing written and oral messages, but also generating and interpreting sounds, images, graphics, videos, animations, and movements (Cummins et al. , 2007; Eagleton & Dobler, 2007). In the remainder of this chapter, we explore L1 and L2 reading and reading development from a sociocognitive perspective. We believe that L2 reading teachers can best serve their students by viewing the learning and teaching of reading as much more than skill-oriented practice (Lee & Smagorinsky, 2000; Meyer & Manning, 2007).We must engage students â€Å"in real literacy events,† which Kern (2000) explicitly distinguished from â€Å"just rehears ing reading and writing skills. † To develop L2 literacy, students must â€Å"learn not only about vocabulary and grammar but also about discourse and the processes by which it is created† (p. 17). To synthesize salient insights from research and theory in NLS and related ? elds, we propose the following global principles, which we can apply to our work as literacy educators: Literacy is a cognitive and a social activity, which we can describe in terms of literacy practices, which are played out during literacy events.Literacies are multiple and associated with different participants, purposes, social relations, settings, institutions, and â€Å"domains of life† that support literate knowledge (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Literacy events reference socially constructed symbol systems that facilitate communication, create meaning, and represent the world. These systems require users to understand, adopt, and even reshape conventions (genres, discourse structure, grammar, vocabulary, spelling). As symbolic systems that draw on writing and speech, literacies enable us to represent and cognize about ourselves, others, and our world (Kern, 2000). Teaching Readers of English Literacy requires problem-solving. Reading and writing â€Å"involve ? guring out relationships† among words, larger units of meaning, and â€Å"between texts and real or imagined worlds† (Kern, 2000, p. 17). Literacy entails knowledge of language and the ability to use it, as well as cultural understanding, belief systems, attitudes, ideals, and values that â€Å"guide our actions† in literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 45). Literacy events shape us and our literacy practices as we engage in literacy events over our lifetimes. â€Å"Literacy has a history,† which de? es individuals as well as literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 47). Literacy in the industrialized world â€Å"means gaining competent control of representational forms in a variety of media and learning how those forms best combine in a variety of genres and discourse† (Warschauer, 1999, p. 177). Working with Writing Systems As a de? ning function of literacy, reading is a chief focus of this chapter. Before reviewing models of L1 and L2 reading, we will consider factors that set reading apart from other skill areas. First, however, we would like to stress that language pro? iency and literacy should be viewed as interdependent. In outlining their model of how children develop language skills, language awareness, and literacy, Ravid and Tolchinsky (2002) asserted that â€Å"the reciprocal character of speech and writing in a literate community makes [language and literacy] a synergistic system where certain features (e. g. , basic syntax) originate in the spoken input† (p. 430). Meanwhile, features such as complex syntax and specialized vocabulary â€Å"originate in the written input. Together . . . they form a ‘virtual loop’ where spe ech and writing constantly feed and modify each other† (p. 30). Because written language—whether in print or hypertext form—exhibits properties that are distinct from speech (Biber, 1988, 1995; Wolf, 2007) and because texts may predetermine the range of meanings that they express, â€Å"spoken language and written language can rarely be the same† (Smith, 2004, p. 42). As a tool that â€Å"increases human control of communication and knowledge,† writing â€Å"uses a written symbol to represent a unit of language and not an object, event, or emotion directly† (Birch, 2007, p. 15). Writing practices and conventions are always deeply â€Å"socially contextualized,† nlike oral language, which entails a comparably â€Å"universal set of